Setting the Boundaries of Individual Reproductive Autonomy
The Case of Artificial Womb
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.32890/uumjls2022.13.2.1Keywords:
Bioethics, medical ethics, individual reproductive autonomy, artificial womb, ectogenesisAbstract
Artificial womb or ectogenesis may sound like science fiction at present. Nevertheless, research on this technology is moving rapidly
and it is anticipated to be ready for human testing in years to come. Although not yet a reality, early discussion on the legal and ethical
ramifications of this technology should be encouraged as to ensure that the law is moving side by side with the scientific developments. Therefore, this article undertakes the challenge of identifying and presenting the potential implications of ectogenesis to women, embryos, and society, with special reference to the legal and social backgrounds in Malaysia. The analysis began by applying the theory of individual reproductive autonomy that is commonly relied upon in arguments for the use of assisted reproductive technologies. It is argued that reliance on the notion of individual reproductive autonomy permits the use of ectogenesis provided that no harm is caused to others. Following that, the possible harms or concerns surrounding ectogenesis were carefully presented. This article concluded that more detailed deliberations on the use of ectogenesis are required before an affirmative legal stance can be reached on its permissibility. This article is significant as it paves the way for more research in this area particularly from the Malaysian perspective.
References
Ahmad, A. G., & Md Dahlan, N. H. (2017). Mengandung anak tak sah taraf: Kajian kes di Kubang Pasu, Kedah. UUM Journal of Legal Studies, 8, 17–55. Ectogenesis (using an artificial womb): Will it make abortion illegal, or unneeded? http://www.religioustolerance.org/abowomb.htm We may one day grow babies outside the womb, but there are many things to consider first. (n.d.). (2019, November 11). The Conversation. https://theconversation. com/we-may-one-day-grow-babies-outside-the-womb-but-there-are-many-things-to-consider-first-125709
Abdullah, K., Noor, N. M., & Wok, S. (2008). The perceptions of women’s roles and progress: A study of Malay women. Social Indicators Research, 1–17.
Alghrani, A. (2007). The legal and ethical ramifications of ectogenesis. Asian Journal of WTO and International Health Law and Policy, 2, 189–211.
Aristarkhova, A. (2005). Ectogenesis and mother as machine. Body & Society, 11(3), 43–59.
Beacuhamp, T. L., & Childress, J. F. (2013). Principles of biomedical ethics. 7th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Biggs, H. (2007). The quest for a perfect child. In Horsey, K. & Biggs, H. (Eds.), Human fertilisation and embryology: Reproducing regulation. Routledge-Cavendish.
Catsanos, R., Rogers, W., & Lotz, M. (2013). The ethics of uterus transplantation. Bioethics, 27(2), 65–73.
Chemaly, S. (2012). What do artificial wombs mean for women? Rewire news group. https://rewirenewsgroup.com/article/2012/02/23/ what-do-artificial-wombs-mean-women/ Chin Yoke Teng v William Ui Ye Mein [2005] 2 MLJ 480
Collin, S. (Ed.). (1989). J.S. Mill: On liberty and other writings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dahl, E. (2004). The presumption in favour of liberty: A comment on the HFEA’s public consultation document on sex selection. Reproductive Biomedicine Online, 8, 266–267.
Davies, N. A. (1993). Contemporary deontology. In Singer, P. (Ed.), A companion to ethics. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
Deech, R., & Smajdor, A. (2007). From I.V.F. to immortality: Controversy in the era of reproductive technology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Digregorio, S. (2020). Artificial wombs aren’t a sci-fi horror story. Slate. https://slate.com/technology/2020/01/artificial-wombs-science-fiction-pregnancy-premature.html
Dworkin, R. (1993). Life’s dominion an argument about abortion and euthanasia. Harper Collins.
Evason, N. (2016). Malaysian culture. https://culturalatlas.sbs.com.au/ malaysian-culture/malaysian-culture-references#malaysian-culture-references
Farina, S. (2021). Challenges in legislating and prosecution of marital rape in Malaysia. 1 LNS(A) vlix.
Firestone, S. (1971). The dialectic of sex: The case for feminist revolution. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
Gosden, R. (2000). Designing babies: The brave new world of reproductive technology. New York: Freeman and Co.
Harris, J. (2000). Rights and reproductive choice. In Harris, J., Holm, S. (Eds.), The future of human reproduction: Ethics, choice and regulation. Oxford: Clarendon Press. https://dictionary. cambridge.org/dictionary/english/autonomy
JAKIM. (n.d.). http://www.e-fatwa.gov.my/jakim/
Johnston, J., & Zacharias, R. L. (2017). The future of reproductive autonomy. Hastings Center Report. Special Report: Just Reproduction: Reimagining Autonomy in Reproductive Medicine, 47, 6–11.
Kass, L. (1998). The wisdom of repugnance. In Kass, L. & Wilson J. Q. (Eds.), The ethics of human cloning. Washington: The AEI Press.
Kingma, E., & Finn, S. (2020). Neonatal incubator or artificial womb? Distinguishing ectogestation and ectogenesis using the metaphysics of pregnancy. Bioethics, 34, 354–363.
Landau, R. (2007). Artificial womb versus natural birth: An exploratory study of women’s views. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 25, 4–17. Malaysian Medical Council. 2006. Guideline on Malaysian Medical Council MMC Guideline 003/2006 Assisted Reproduction. https://mmc.gov.my/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Assisted-Reproduction.pdf
McNaughton, D. (2006). Deontology. In Copp, D. (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of ethical theory. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Meikeng, Y. (2015). Act to Ensure Country Has Regulations on Artificial Reproduction. The Star Online. https://www. thestar.com.my/news/nation/2015/11/29/birth-of-a-new-law-soon-act-to-ensure-country-has-regulations-on-artificial-reproduction/ Merriam-Webster dictionary. https://www.merriam-webster.com/ dictionary/ectogenesis
Morley, R. (2017). Artificial womb sustains premature lambs. BioNews. https://www.bionews.org.uk/page_95976
O’Donovan, L. (2018). Pushing the boundaries: Uterine transplantation and the limits of reproductive autonomy. Bioethics, 32, 489–498.
Osman, Z. J. (2013). Malay Muslim academic women in dual-career families: Negotiating religious and cultural identities and practices. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of York, United Kingdom.
Oxford Concise Medical Dictionary. (1998). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Page, C. (2017). Artificial womb technology and children’s rights: Complete fantasy or future reality? https://leidenlawblog. nl/articles/artificial-womb-technology-and-childrens-rights Paton v British Pregnancy Advisory Service Trustees [1979] QB 276.
Pejabat Mufti Wilayah Persekutuan. (2019). L-Kafi #1203: Mengapakah didahulukan berbuat baik kepada ibu sebanyak tiga kali? https://www.muftiwp.gov.my/artikel/al-kafi-li-al-fatawi/3281-al-kafi-1203-mengapakah-didahulukan-berbuat-baik-kepada-ibu-sebanyak-tiga-kali
Ratanlal & Dhirajlal. (1987). Law of crimes, 2 (23rd ed.). New Delhi: Bharat Law House.
Roberts, M. (2011). Mother to donate womb to her daughter. BioNews. https://www.bionews.org.uk/page_93033
Robertson, J. (1994). Children of choice freedom and the new reproductive technologies. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Romanis, E. C. (2020). Artificial womb technology: The implications of ectogestation as a reproductive choice. BioNews. https://www.bionews.org.uk/oage_151640
Schwartz, O. (2019). On the history of the artificial womb. https://daily.jstor.org/on-the-history-of-the-artificial-womb/
Seppe, S. (2020). Artificial womb technology and the ethics of prenatal medicine. Human Reproduction, 35(suppl. 1), i289.
Singer, P., & Wells, D. (1987). Making babies: The new science and ethics of conception. MacMillan Publishing.
Smajdor, A. (2007). The moral imperative for ectogenesis. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics, 16, 336–345.
Smajdor, A. (2015). Naturalness and unnaturalness in contemporary bioethics. The Nuffield Council on bioethics. https://www.nuffieldbioethics.org/publications/naturalness-and-unnaturalness-in-contemporary-bioethics
Solerte, M. L. (2020). Artificial uterus – Research background to improve survival and outcome of extremely low birth weight newborns. Journal of Gynecological Research and Obstetrics, 6(3), 067–071. https://doi.org/10.17352/jgro.000090
The Medical Futurist. (2019). Will we be born in 2050? https://medicalfuturist.com/artificial-womb-and-the-future-of-birth/
Tumanishvili, G. G. (2017). Fertilisation in artificial womb legal and bioethical issues. Education Science and Psychology, 3(45), 14–31. Veelavan Govindasamy v Dr. Haris Hamzah & satu lagi [2013] 10 CLJ 846.
Wellin, S. (2004). Reproductive ectogenesis: The third era of human reproduction and some moral consequences. Science and Engineering Ethics, 10, 615–626.
Yaakob, H. (2013). Islam and bioethics in Malaysia. 6 MLJ Iiii.
Yaakob, H. (2019). The ‘Yuk-factor’ in Bioethical Discourse. [2019] 1 LNS(A) civ.
Yaakob, H. (2020). Expanding the boundaries of assisted reproductive technology in Malaysia: The case of single women and same-sex couples. Asian Journal of Research in Education and Social Sciences. 2(1), 33–44. http://myjms.moe.gov.my/index. php/ajress
Yaakob, H., Yaakob, Z., & Hashim, N. (2011). The legal and ethical dilemmas in keeping abreast with innovations in medical sciences. Procedia-Social and Behavioural Sciences, 28, 222–225.
Yatim, N. (2019). Jumlah kanak-kanak terabai meningkat. Sinar Harian. https://www.sinarharian.com.my/article/21564/EDISI/ Terengganu/Jumlah-kanak-kanak-terabai-meningkat
Zaami, S., Di Luca, A., & Marinelli, E. (2019). Advancements in uterus transplant: New scenarios and future implications. European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences, 23, 892–902.
Zeiler, K. (2004). Reproductive autonomous choice - A cherished illusion? Reproductive autonomy examined in the context of Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis. Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy, 7, 175–183.
Published
Issue
Section
How to Cite
Research impact
Harvested 2026-09-07Counts differ between services because each indexes a different body of literature. None of them is the whole picture.
