The Journal of International Studies (JIS) is an internationally referred journal focusing on the contemporary issues of world dynamism from various perspectives, among others politics, international relations, diplomacy, economy, business, cross-cultural management, trade, law, and development. JIS invites prospective authors to submit original and unpublished work in areas that include but not limited to human rights, democratisation, trade arrangements, border disputes, corporate governance, multinational enterprises, logistics and supply chain, global maritime, sustainable development, political violence, and terrorism. Topics that of analysing regional comparative studies are also welcome. JIS is a refereed and open access journal that is available free-of-charge to anyone with access to internet, and there are no publication fees or article processing charges in this open journal. JIS is financially supported and published under the auspices of the Universiti Utara Malaysia, College of Law, Government and International Studies, School of International Studies.
THE PARIS PROTOCOL AND FISCAL FRAGILITY: WITHHOLDING CLEARANCE TAX REVENUES IN PALESTINE (1997–2022)
This article examines the Palestinian Authority’s fiscal responses to the withholding of clearance revenues crisis from 1997 to 2022, a critical issue rooted in international economic agreements. Since data for subsequent years were unavailable due to the impact of war (Gaza War), the analysis focuses on data up to 2022.The Paris Protocol, which governs economic relations between Israel and Palestine, establishes a customs union characterized by the absence of economic borders between the two sides and relies on a joint economic committee. Using data from official reports issued by the Ministry of Finance and the Palestine Monetary Authority, this study uses descriptive statistics and regression analysis to explore the relationship between current expenditures and clearance tax revenues. The results show a positive association between these expenditures and revenues, highlighting the significant impact of withheld funds on fiscal policy. The research highlights the need to renegotiate the Paris Economic Protocol to address structural weaknesses and prevent recurring fiscal crises. Recommendations include enhancing the efficiency of the tax system, diversifying revenue sources, and rationalizing spending to enhance fiscal stability. By placing the analysis in a broader context of international economic relations, this study contributes to understanding the interaction between domestic fiscal crises and international agreements. These findings have implications for policymakers and international stakeholders seeking to promote sustainable economic growth and mitigate the risks of unequal economic arrangements.
Hak Cipta (c) 2026 Journal of International Studies https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
STRATEGIC IMPLICATIONS OF CHINA’S BRIAMID TRUMP 2.0’S TARIFFS:AN INTERREGIONAL PERSPECTIVE
Trump 2.0’s tariff policies have generated significant disruptions to both domestic and global economic systems, necessitating strategic multilateral responses to mitigate their effects. As China continues to rise as the world’s second largest economic power within the context of US China rivalry, its Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) has attracted increasing global attention as a potential alternative framework for economic cooperation. Grounded in neoliberal institutionalism, which emphasises the feasibility of interstate interdependence, this article analyses the strategic implications of the BRI from the perspective of from the perspective of interregionalism defined as economic connectivity across regions as economic connectivity across regions in response to Trump 2.0’s tariffs. It also explores the broader implications of the BRI for US China power dynamics under the second Trump presidency. This study primarily employs a qualitative analysis based on secondary data sources, including IMF economic reports, as well as scholarly and policy oriented literature on BRI implementation at both intraregional and interregional levels. Drawing on contributions from scholars, such as Pencea, Yang, Khalid and others, alongside institutional sources including the ASEAN China Centre, the article evaluates the extent to which the BRI can counterbalance the adverse effects of tariff driven economic fragmentation. The findings suggest that while Trump’s tariffs exert negative impacts on US economic performance and international credibility, China’s BRI contributes to strengthen its global favourability and economic resilience without inducing systemic economic decline. Despite ongoing criticisms particularly regarding debt trap diplomacy and transparency the BRI is argued to function as a strategic interregional mechanism capable of mitigating tariff related disruptions and reshaping US China power relations. Overall, the study concludes that, with continued institutional refinement, the BRI remains a significant vehicle for sustaining interregional economic integration within the evolving international economic order.
CHINA’S STRATEGIC RESPONSE TO U. S. DECOUPLING IN THE SEMICONDUCTOR INDUSTRY:A NEOMERCANTILIST PERSPECTIVE
This article examines China’s strategic response to U.S. decoupling in the semiconductor industry through the lens of neomercantilism, emphasizing the intersection of economic nationalism and geopolitical rivalry. It argues that the ongoing technology confrontation demontrates how the U.S. and China deploy economic instruments as tools of strategic competition. The study finds that while Trump’s first and second-term decoupling strategies share a foundation in protectionist logic, the second term transformed decoupling into an institutionalized, legal-bureaucratic framework that embedded export controls, investment restrictions, and coalition-based coordination within a broader geoeconomic strategy to preserve U.S. technological supremacy. In response, China has pursued state-driven countermeasures, including the following: export restrictions, retaliatory sanctions, R&D investment, technological self-sufficiency initiatives, sanction circumvention, and global diplomatic outreach. These actions reveal both the strengths and limits of China’s neomercantilist approach—demonstrating success in developing niche technologies and domestic innovation ecosystems, yet being exposed to persistent dependence on foreign inputs in advanced chipmaking. By framing the semiconductor rivalry as a manifestation of neomercantilist statecraft, this article contributes to understanding how economic interdependence is being weaponised, transforming globalisation from a liberal order of mutual gain into a competitive arena of strategic industrial policy and geopolitical control.
MARITIME SECURITY GOVERNANCE IN THE STRAITS OF MALACCA: INDONESIA, MALAYSIA, AND SINGAPORE’S RESPONSES
Maritime security governance of a strategic ‘strait’ is unique. It is a complex exercise for coastal states, in particular, to have control over adjacent offshore resources, navigational rights, and maintaining access to commercial and military vessels passing through the waterway. Central to this is sustaining a balanced governance approach to security that would impinge on navigational freedom and coastal states’ rights and duties. However, maritime security governance is not only the actions of a sovereign state or a group of sovereign countries but also non-sovereign entities and institutions. It includes the formulation and implementation of solutions to collective issues. Several factors, such as historical patterns of regulation and control of the policy sector and institutional interests, eventually influence states in either promoting or resisting the formation of governance mechanisms. While maritime security governance exists in many international straits, the focus of this article is on the Straits of Malacca (Strait of Malacca and Strait of Singapore), hereafter referred to as SOM, a strategic maritime passage that involves multiple interests involving governance, military, and commercial aspects. Maritime security governance is at the core of the SOM’s management. Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore’s approaches towards maritime security are strongly influenced by their sovereign, economic, and legal interests. This article is divided into three sections. First, it defines the concept of governance and examines why maritime security governance has garnered attention in contemporary international relations. Second, it identifies maritime security governance approaches among the littoral states in the SOM. Third, it explains why the littoral states adopt diverging approaches to security governance and the conditions shaping their attitudes.
Hak Cipta (c) 2025 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
WATER CONCESSION AND HYDRO HEGEMONYIN MALAYSIA-SINGAPORE RELATIONS:THE QUESTION OF SOVEREIGN RIGHTS, ASYMMETRIC INTERDEPENDENCE AND POWER STRATEGIES
The 1962 Water Agreement between the State of Johor and the Government of Singapore, then a British Crown Colony, has long been a source of tension in Malaysia-Singapore relations. It reflects deeper contestations over sovereign rights, asymmetric interdependence, and divergent strategic priorities. Under this agreement, Johor granted Singapore the right to extract up to 250 million gallons of raw water per day at a fixed rate of RM0.03 (SG$0.01) per 1,000 gallons. While initially justified as a developmental concession during the decolonisation period, this rate is now widely regarded by Malaysian policymakers as economically inequitable and as undermining resource sovereignty. The issue is further complicated by Singapore’s resale of treated water to Johor at RM0.50 per 1,000 gallons, significantly higher than the original rate, thereby exacerbating public dissatisfaction and highlighting the uneven terms of exchange. This study examines the political economy of water pricing concessions in Malaysia-Singapore relations through the analytical lens of hydro hegemony and cost-benefit analysis, employing a qualitative methodology based on document analysis and international case comparison. The research situates the 1962 agreement within broader discourses on transboundary water diplomacy, drawing insights from other geopolitical cases such as the Jordan River (Israel and Palestine), the Indus Waters Treaty (India and Pakistan), the Mekong River Commission, and the Great Lakes Agreement (United States and Canada). The findings indicate that Malaysia bears disproportionate economic costs due to outdated pricing structures, while Singapore retains strategic advantages through legal and infrastructural leverage. The study concludes by recommending a revision of the bilateral framework toward a more flexible, cost-reflective, and ecologically balanced model aligned with international norms in transboundary water governance.
CROSS-BORDER OVERSIGHT OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE: CHALLENGES AND PROSPECTS FOR A HARMONISED INTERNATIONAL REGULATORY FRAMEWORK
As Artificial Intelligence (AI) continues to reshape industries, economies and societies globally, issues around privacy, security and ethical use of this technology have become major oversight concerns. Since AI is an area of technology that knows no bounds, there should be an adequate international regulatory response to address these new challenges. This paper will examine the global landscape for AI in several of the largest jurisdictions and how laws may be enforced beyond borders with regard to jurisdictional challenges, as well as enforcement. It discusses mechanisms to achieve this harmonization, with instruments of policy formulation and international cooperation. This study analyses the regulatory oversight strategies and international initiatives proposed by organizations such as the UN, OECD or WTO, to highlight how assembling a consistent set of regulations can be problematic. Results indicate that harmonized AI regulations in all countries can promote innovation, reduce costs of compliance and guarantee ethical deployment of secured beneficial AI worldwide. This paper provides a thorough examination of the problems and potential for international cooperation and regulation. It emphasizes the need for co-operation between nations and a regulatory ecosystem that is flexible enough to adapt quickly to rapid innovations. The study is located in the larger discussion on AI governance, and it highlights a global mandate towards coordinated approaches to unlock the promise of AI while warding off its dangers.
ASSESSING THE RIPPLE EFFECT: THE ECONOMY AND MONETARY POLICY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA ON ASEAN-5 STOCK MARKET DYNAMICS
This study evaluated the impacts of the United States of America (USA) economy and monetary policy on the ASEAN-5 stock markets by analysing semiannual data from 2005 to 2023. Its primary objective is comparing the impacts across the different ASEAN-5 countries and identify additional factors contributing to stock performance beyond the macroeconomic variables of the USA. The panel autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) approach was employed to scrutinise both long-term and short-term relationships between the ASEAN-5 stock markets and the economic variables of the USA. The gross domestic product (GDP) and monetary policy of the ASEAN-5 stock markets and the USA were also examined. It also investigated the real effective exchange rate (REER) and the relationship between the ASEAN-5 stock markets and the international trade and stock market performance of the USA. Findings revealed that when the USA experienced significant GDP growth, ASEAN-5 stock markets would be negatively influenced. The Federal Funds Rate of the USA produced a statistically significant and positive long-term impact. However, the REER and the USA international trade had no profound long-term impacts. USA GDP positively influenced the ASEAN-5 stock performance in the short term, with the USA Federal Funds Rate producing a negative influence. The REER demonstrated a positive short-term impact while the USA’s international trade negatively impacted the ASEAN-5 stock markets. Findings have highlighted the interactions between the economic indicators of the USA and the ASEAN-5 stock markets. This insight has provided a foundation for future research into the local and global economic dynamics contributing to the performance of the ASEAN-5 stock markets. This study also underscored the importance of resilience to external shocks by illustrating the significance of economic linkages. The capability to withstand external shocks, such as financial crises or global uncertainties, could contribute to more informed decision-making and support sustainable ASEAN-5 economic growth.
RISING TO GLOBAL PROMINENCE: THE SUBNATIONAL ROLEOF HAINAN PROVINCE IN CHINA’S FOREIGN RELATIONS
This study examines the trajectory through which Hainan, an island province of China, has emerged as an international actor. Drawing on the analytical framework of subnational diplomacy and employing a qualitative research approach, this study analyses the factors that have enabled Hainan to function as an international actor across four dimensions: motivation, opportunity, strategy, and presence. A comparative analysis is conducted with Guangxi, China’s southwestern subnational region bordering countries in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). The findings indicate that the trajectory of Hainan’s international participation has been shaped by a combination of factors, including its geographical location, resource endowment, economic conditions, local leadership, and national strategies. These factors have contributed to Hainan’s distinctive role in China’s foreign relations, which differs from Guangxi’s primarily ASEAN-oriented engagement. By highlighting this contrast, the study demonstrates the diverse patterns of international participation among Chinese provinces and contributes to expanding existing research on China’s subnational actors in foreign affairs.
BORDER SECURITISATION AND ECONOMIC FACILITATION: THE QUEST FOR FREE VISA AND OPEN-BORDER POLICIES
In the context of Malaysia’s economic and border policies, two important developments have taken place. In 2023, the government decided to reopen the Wang Kelian free-flow zone in favour of economic development after its closure in 2015. In the same year, the government eliminated visa requirements to attract tourists from China and India. This study examines the two above mentioned case studies that illustrate the debates in the facilitation of entry for economic development and security concerns. Three findings are revealed. First, this article proposes the hypothesis that Malaysia’s migration control policies can be framed as tension between border securitisation and economic facilitation. From an enforcement perspective, border securitisation is undermined by the facilitation of legal entry in the quest for the state’s economic interests, as the abuse of legal entry facilities is prevalent. Second, security and economic interests may be harmonised through smart border control mechanisms, such as the Digital Arrival Card, data centres that evaluate passenger information, delegating gatekeeping responsibilities to airlines and tourist firms, enforcement, surveillance and denying entry and amnesty for overstayers. Third, the amnesty regime functions as an entry and exit mechanism by blacklisting overstayers from re-entering the state using biometric data.
AN ANALYSIS OF THE POST-COVID-19 EFFORTS IN COMBATING HUMAN TRAFFICKING AND THE SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS IN MALAYSIA
Malaysia has retained its Tier 3 status in the 2022 Trafficking in Persons (TIP) Report released by the United States Department of State, underscoring the persistence of human trafficking issues despite ongoing governmental efforts. This marks the fourth instance of the country being relegated to the lowest tier, reflecting the limited efficacy of measures to address human trafficking, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic. In response, the Malaysian government introduced the National Action Plan on Trafficking in Persons (NAPTIP 3.0) in March 2021, aimed at bolstering mechanisms to combat human trafficking and migrant smuggling. However, these initiatives failed to yield improvements in the 2022 TIP ranking, which coincided with the reopening of international borders. Therefore, this study is aimed at examining the Malaysian government's efforts to address the pervasive challenges of human trafficking and migrant smuggling, with a specific focus on the development and implementation of NAPTIP 3.0. By analysing the mechanisms underpinning these initiatives, the paper evaluates their functional role in combating human trafficking and migrant smuggling, particularly in the post-COVID-19 context. The research is based on a comprehensive analysis of policy documents, media reports, academic literature, official statements and interviews. The findings highlight that while the Malaysian government's efforts have been constrained, they represent meaningful progress towards addressing these issues. These endeavours were recognised in June 2023, when Malaysia was upgraded to the Tier 2 Watch List in the US TIP Report, and in 2024 when the country advanced to Tier 2.
NEXUS BETWEEN FOREIGN AID AND GDP: A PANEL DATA ANALYSIS OF TWENTY VULNERABLE COUNTRIES (V20)
This research explores the relationship between foreign aid and the GDP in V20 countries from 2006 to 2019 using a panel data analysis. It assesses how foreign aid, specifically the Official Development Assistance (ODA) impacts the GDP; with trade, remittances, population, and foreign direct investment (FDI) as control variables. The study utilizes pooled Ordinary Least Squares (OLS), random effects, and fixed effects models, along with Hausman specification and the Business Process Lifecycle Management (BPLM) tests to ensure robust results. The findings indicate that the ODA negatively affects the GDP, whereas trade, remittances, population, and FDI positively contribute to economic growth. This suggests that foreign aid might not always promote growth in the V20 countries, possibly due to inefficient allocation or misuse of resources. Conversely, the positive effects of the other variables highlight their importance in driving economic progress in these vulnerable nations. The study concludes that foreign aid may hamper growth if not properly managed and recommends directing the foreign aid towards productive sectors such as agriculture, human capital development, and infrastructure. Policymakers are urged to focus aid on areas that foster sustainable development, reduce dependency on external funding, and stimulate domestic growth. Additionally, creating favorable conditions for FDI, trade, and remittances is crucial to support the long-term economic growth of the V20 countries.
VIETNAM’S STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT AND ORGANISATIONAL ADAPTATION TO TECHNOLOGICAL, GEOPOLITICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES
This article examines Vietnam’s strategic approach to managing global dynamics, focusing on organisational adaptation and strategic management amid complex technological, geopolitical, and environmental challenges. Applying complexity theory, landscape genetics, and strategic improvisation, this study provides insights into Vietnam’s responses to geopolitical conflicts, climate change impacts, and cybersecurity threats. It highlights Vietnam’s strategies in environmental conservation, such as combating sea level rise, and the role of technological integration, including artificial intelligence and digital transformation, in enhancing national resilience. Vietnam’s partnerships in maritime security, especially concerning the South China Sea, illustrate its adaptive capabilities in securing territorial and economic interests. Additionally, this paper emphasises the significance of corporate entrepreneurship and talent management in fostering innovation and resilience. The findings underscore the necessity for flexible, collaborative strategies for sustainable development and national security, positioning Vietnam as a resilient actor within the Asia-Pacific region.
MANAGERIAL RISK-TAKING AND THE ADOPTION OF ENERGY EFFICIENCY POLICY: IMPLICATIONS ON RESOURCE AVAILABILITY
The principal-agent contract motivates managers to take risks to increase shareholders’ returns. A key issue is whether managerial risk-taking decisions are made at the cost of sustainable practices, particularly in relation to environmental protection, which may conflict with profit-seeking activities. This study examines the impact of managerial risk-taking on firms’ energy efficiency practices using a sample of 36 countries from 2006 to 2019. We further investigate how firm size, as a tangible resource, and board size, as an intangible resource, moderate this relationship. Our findings suggest that, although managers take risks to seek higher profitability from investments that may not align with environmental sustainability, intangible resources such as board size can help bridge the gap between profitability and sustainability. However, tangible resources may shift firms’ focus away from sustainable practices, directing attention toward profitable investments that might not be environmentally friendly. In practice, this study highlights the importance of corporate governance, particularly board composition, which plays a key role in contributing to corporate sustainability.
AN ANALYSIS OF HOUSING POLICY EFFECTIVENESS IN INDONESIA THROUGH COMPARISON BETWEEN DEVELOPED AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES’ HOUSING POLICY
This study examines Indonesia's challenges in meeting its citizens' housing needs amidst globalisation and economic liberalisation. The research aims to identify effective housing policies from developed and developing countries that can be adapted to the Indonesian context. Through a comparative analysis of housing policies in North Western Europe, the United States, Thailand, the Philippines, and Malaysia, the study explores different approaches to addressing housing affordability and accessibility. Findings reveal that developed countries leverage robust institutions and capital resources to implement tax and subsidy mechanisms, while developing countries face limitations due to financial constraints and low tax revenues. The study suggests that Indonesia can adopt successful policies from developed nations, such as targeted subsidies and incentivising private sector participation, while tailoring them to align with Indonesian values and socioeconomic conditions. This study examines Indonesia's challenges in meeting its citizens' housing needs amidst globalisation and economic liberalisation. The research aims to identify effective housing policies from developed and developing countries that can be adapted to the Indonesian context. Through a comparative analysis of housing policies in North Western Europe, the United States, Thailand, the Philippines, and Malaysia, the study explores different approaches to addressing housing affordability and accessibility. Findings reveal that developed countries leverage robust institutions and capital resources to implement tax and subsidy mechanisms, while developing countries face limitations due to financial constraints and low tax revenues. The study suggests that Indonesia can adopt successful policies from developed nations, such as targeted subsidies and incentivising private sector participation, while tailoring them to align with Indonesian values and socioeconomic conditions. This study reveals key differences in how developed and developing countries approach housing policy. While developed nations leverage strong institutions and significant capital for tax and subsidy programs to improve affordability and access, developing countries like Indonesia face limitations due to financial constraints and lower tax revenues. The research contributes valuable comparative analysis and policy recommendations for Indonesia, suggesting the adoption of targeted subsidies and incentivising private sector participation tailored to the country's unique context. Ultimately, it highlights the need for context-specific solutions to address housing challenges in a globalised world.
US-CHINA DIGITAL INFRASTRUCTURE COMPETITION IN SOUTHEAST ASIA: STRATEGIES AND IMPLICATIONS FOR ASEAN'S 5G FUTURE
The rapid evolution of the digital economy has significantly heightened global competition between the United States and China, especially in the area of digital infrastructure development centred around 5G technology. This competition situates the ASEAN member states (AMS) at a strategic intersection of these two superpowers, compelling them to manoeuver through a complex geopolitical landscape. This study seeks to analyse the strategies that the United States and China are deploying in Southeast Asia’s digital infrastructure, with a particular focus on 5G technology, and to evaluate the implications for the digital future of ASEAN. The study utilises a comprehensive literature review methodology, scrutinising relevant scholarly articles, policy documents, and reports from the period 2013 to 2023. Despite the United States' escalating security concerns regarding Chinese technology, the AMS has opted for a balanced and diversified approach in selecting their 5G vendors. This strategy demonstrates their attempt to harmonise technological advancement with security imperatives. The findings indicate that AMS has preserved their strategic autonomy in the face of U.S.-China competition by diversifying their technological partnerships and avoiding dependence on any single supplier. Nonetheless, this approach presents substantial challenges, including economic vulnerabilities, security risks, and the intricacies of geopolitical entanglements. The article anticipates that AMS will continue to adeptly balance their relationships with both the United States and China, targeting digital sovereignty that aligns with their long-term developmental goals. This study contributes fresh insights into the digital geopolitical dynamics of Southeast Asia and provides valuable perspectives for policymakers and business entities operating within this complex environment.
JAPAN’S SHIFT FROM PACIFISM: REARMAMENT AMID SECURITY CHALLENGES
Amidst shifting security dynamics in East Asia, Japan faces an evolving strategic landscape, particularly in response to mounting threats from North Korea and China. Through a descriptive analysis of primary and secondary sources, this study investigates Japan's trajectory towards potential constitutional amendment and further militarization, with a focus on Article 9—a key provision renouncing the use of force and restricting military capabilities. By tracing historical contexts and the U.S.-Japan security alliance, the paper explores Japan's post-war pacifism and the gradual evolution of its Self-Defense Forces (SDF) within constitutional constraints. Despite inherent constraints, Japan has developed a robust military force, challenging traditional perceptions of its rearmament. While the nation has incrementally expanded its defense posture, legal and political obstacles remain, necessitating constitutional revisions to align its military strategy with contemporary security challenges. Externally, Japan faces threats such as North Korea's nuclear ambitions and China's assertive regional policies, while internally, public sentiment, historical legacies, and legal obstacles shape the discourse on constitutional reform. Japan's path towards constitutional amendment hinges on regional security dynamics and the strength of the U.S.-Japan alliance. The extent of US commitment to regional stability and its capacity to address Japanese security concerns may significantly determine the pace and direction of Japan’s defense normalization. Although Japan is militarily prepared to address emerging security threats, its constitutional constraints persist as a legal challenge. Findings indicate that through a series of incremental military policies, Japan has effectively rearmed itself with credible self-defense capabilities, despite the continued legal restrictions imposed by its pacifist constitution.
FACTORS INFLUENCING EXPATRIATES’ INTENTION TO STAY: THE MEDIATING ROLE OF JOB SATISFACTION AND THE MODERATING EFFECT OF SOCIAL INFRASTRUCTURE
This study explores the relationship between motivational factors (including hygiene factors) and intelligence factors (cultural intelligence and social intelligence) on expatriates' intention to stay and continue working in Pakistan. Additionally, it investigates the mediating role of job satisfaction and the moderating role of social infrastructure in these relationships. A quantitative research approach was adopted, with data gathered through survey questionnaires from a sample of 303 expatriates working in three major Pakistani cities, namely Lahore, Islamabad, and Karachi were involved in this study. The findings reveal a significant and positive relationship between motivational factors, hygiene factors, cultural intelligence, and social intelligence with job satisfaction. Regarding expatriates' intention to stay, all independent variables showed a significant relationship, except for cultural intelligence. Furthermore, job satisfaction was found to be positively associated with expatriates' intention to stay and mediated the relationship between motivational factors, hygiene factors, cultural intelligence, and social intelligence with expatriates' retention intentions. However, the results indicate that social infrastructure does not moderate the relationship between job satisfaction and expatriates’ intention to stay. This study contributes to the existing literature on expatriate retention and offers useful insights for firms and policymakers on the key factors that influence expatriates' decision to remain in a country.
ACROSS TIMELINES: DECODING CROSS-REGIONAL MEDIA FRAMINGS OF ISIS ON X (2014–2023)
This study investigates regional variations in media framings of ISIS on X, identifying the key factors contributing to these differences. By analysing diverse perspectives and approaches adopted by media accounts, the research sheds light on how various factors shape media discourse on social media platforms. Data were collected from X using RStudio and the academictwitteR package. Network analysis was employed to identify key opinion leaders (KOLs) within each regional group, while framing analysis explored media variations through framing devices such as problem definition and causal interpretation. Findings reveal that Asian media primarily focus on local impacts, particularly the radicalization of Indonesian citizens by ISIS and egregious human rights abuses. Euro-Anglosphere media emphasize international involvement, highlighting violent acts and advocating for a coordinated global response. Middle Eastern media centre their framing on local events, including military engagements, cultural heritage destruction, and immediate regional consequences. These variations are influenced by factors such as geopolitical proximity, national context, domestic journalistic norms, and online netizen engagement patterns. Overall, this study provides valuable insights into the dynamics of media discourse on X concerning ISIS.
THE EFFECT OF GLOBAL PANDEMIC COVID-19 AND ECONOMIC INDICATORS ON FTSE BURSA MALAYSIA KLCI STOCK RETURNS VOLATILITY: AN EXPLORATORY SEQUENTIAL MIXED METHODS APPROACH
Malaysia’s stock markets experienced significant declines as the virus spread throughout the global pandemic of COVID-19. This study was undertaken to investigate the global pandemic COVID-19 and Malaysia stock market volatility during the Movement Control Order from 18 March 2020 until 30 September 2022 using a mixed method of quantitative and qualitative data. The Exponential Generalized Autoregressive Conditional Heteroskedastic (EGARCH) methodology was employed to analyse identified quantitative variables and understand stock return patterns, along with a qualitative exploratory sequential mixed methods approach to investigate the phenomenon. The EGARCH empirical finding reveals statistically positive coefficients and highlights substantial continuity in Malaysia’s stock market return volatility, besides negative shocks and significance between the variables in considering uneven volatility and their impact on FTSE Bursa Malaysia KLCI stock returns, except for Malaysia’s gold price.
VISUAL THINKING THROUGH MOVIES AND DOCUMENTARIES: ASSESSING STUDENTS’ LEARNING AND SATISFACTION IN AN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS CLASS
In contemporary teaching, it has become quite common to talk about “active learning.” This discussion initially started in Education, but it soon spread to many disciplines. International Relations (IR) is no exception to this trend, with many scholars and teachers reporting on the use of several active learning techniques in their classrooms. An active learning format that has recently gained popularity is “visual thinking” (VT). VT is considered relevant for teaching in many disciplines, including IR. Several scholars have introduced the use of visual items, such as pictures, cartoons, video games, or art paintings, in their teaching projects. Movies and documentaries are also used for visual teaching. Many IR scholars consider them as effective tools to improve students’ learning, thanks to their supposed capacity to make class contents more understandable and increase student class engagement. By relying on a mixed-method approach, the goal of this study is to empirically assess whether a VT format contributes to improving IR students’ hard skills, measured in terms of grades, and their perceptions about and satisfaction with the class.
MALAY NATIONALISM AND THE PAN-MALAYSIAN ISLAMIC PARTY: ANALYSING THE PARTY’S ROLE IN ADDRESSING GLOBAL MUSLIM UMMAH CHALLENGES AND CONFLICTS
Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party (PAS) is a prominent political party in Malaysia that has long championed Malay nationalism. This study examines PAS's political connections and approach in addressing Muslim issues on a global scale, mainly through the lens of Malay nationalism. A qualitative methodology was employed to analyse key documents, speeches, and policies of PAS leaders over the years. The findings revealed that PAS has actively sought to align its nationalist agenda with broader Islamic causes, forging connections with like-minded organisations and movements internationally. PAS has positioned itself as a defender of Malay rights and interests while advocating for implementing Islamic principles in governance and society. The party's interpretation of Malay nationalism is deeply rooted in its Islamic ideology, seeking to reconcile ethnic and religious identities. This study contributes to the understanding of how a regional political party, such as PAS navigates the complex interplay between nationalism, religion, and global affairs. It highlights PAS's efforts to project its influence beyond the Malaysian context and situate the Malay nationalist struggle within the broader framework of the Muslim ummah. The implications of such an approach for national unity, regional dynamics, and the party's long-term political trajectory are also discussed.
REFRAMING THE INDIA-PAKISTAN KASHMIR CONFLICT:DISCURSIVE CONSTRUCTIONS OF SPACE, POWER AND IDENTITY
The Kashmir conflict remains one of the most enduring geopolitical disputes in South Asia, symbolizing broader tensions between India and Pakistan. While existing studies have predominantly examined the issue through realist or postcolonial lenses, comparatively limited attention has been given to how evolving geopolitical discourses actively reshape national identities, legitimize power claims, and constrain pathways for conflict resolution. Employing the framework of Critical Geopolitics and qualitative discourse analysis, this study investigates how state actors, media institutions, and international bodies construct competing geopolitical imaginaries of Kashmir. It argues that these discursive practices—rooted in postcolonial legacies and reinforced by contemporary great-power rivalries—reproduce Kashmir as a symbolic arena of legitimacy, sovereignty, and existential security rather than a negotiable political space. This analysis demonstrates that entrenched discursive framings do not merely describe the conflict but actively sustain it by constraining diplomatic thinking and marginalizing local voices and alternative perspectives. By reconceptualizing Kashmir as a discursive and identity-based struggle, this study advances critical geopolitical scholarship while offering policy relevant insights. It underscores the need for discourse-sensitive and inclusive approaches that move beyond territorial fixation toward mutual recognition and cooperative security.
RESHAPING THE WORLD, RETHINKING ACTORS: THE ROLE OF SUB-STATE ACTORS IN FOREIGN RELATIONS
International relations scholars have increasingly debated the evolving landscape of actors that challenge the traditional state-centric world order. A key element of this transformation is the rise of sub-state actors, which engages in alternative diplomacy parallel to the state, transcending traditional state-centric frameworks. This paper explores the significant shifts in international actorness over the late 20th century, focusing on the emergence and implications of sub-state diplomacy, or "paradiplomacy." First, the study introduces sub-state actors and their role in challenging the dominant state-centric discourse. It then examines the dynamic evolution of paradiplomacy, highlighting how sub-states have expanded their global engagement, the opportunities this presents, and the potential threats it poses. Through a multi-scalar analysis, the paper critically assesses paradiplomacy's impact on long-held beliefs about regions, states, actors, and the international political system. Furthermore, the study shows how states can leverage their sub-national entities to deal with problems that threaten their sovereignty and global standing. The findings suggest that both the state and sub-state actors can engage in ambitious international activities, fostering greater global cooperation within the complexities of modern governance and competition.
LABOUR RIGHTS AND GLOBAL STANDARDS: USING INTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS TO EXAMINE JUST AND FAVOURABLE WORK CONDITIONS IN PAKISTAN
Just and favorable conditions of work (JFCW) are essential components of labor rights. These include remuneration, fair wages, reasonable working hours, and a healthy and safe environment. Thus, the right to such conditions guarantees a minimum standard for all workers as the concept promotes just and fair labor practices at worksites. This concept gained international recognition when the United Nations (UN) and its specialized agency, the International Labor Organization (ILO), acknowledged it as part of their key principles and even as a fundamental human right. Nevertheless, the idea may appear overly idealistic for some countries due to differing economic and social backgrounds. This article aims to discuss the legal framework and conditions of employment in Pakistan using international instruments, particularly the UN Declaration of Human Rights and relevant ILO conventions as benchmarks. The article highlights common violations of the right to JFCW at the workplace in Pakistan and analyses the legal framework, current implementation, and enforcement mechanism. The study adopts qualitative, socio-legal, doctrinal, and comparative approaches. In light of its findings, the study recommends improvement in terms of law reform and implementation to better protect and promote the right to JFCW for workers in Pakistan. The gap between Pakistan's labor conditions and international standards provides a foundation for guiding future policy reforms that seek to align national practices with global labor rights instruments.
DIVERSION FOR CHILDREN FROM THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF MALAYSIA AND INDONESIA
Children’s rights in the criminal justice system are now legally recognised, as the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) 1989 provides. Since Malaysia and Indonesia acceded to the CRC, both jurisdictions must provide legal safeguards to all children in the criminal justice system. However, whether these children are adequately protected at every stage of the criminal proceedings remains questionable. Consequently, exposure to the criminal justice system might have detrimental effects on the psychological, cognitive, and emotional development and well-being of children. To overcome these adverse effects, diversion is an alternative measure that can be implemented to protect children better. Thus, this research aims to meet the following objectives: a) to analyse the adequacy of the national laws governing diversion when dealing with children in Malaysia and Indonesia, (b) to examine the international instruments governing the implementation of diversion, and (c) to propose for the implementation of effective diversion for children in both jurisdictions. A doctrinal study was employed to achieve the objectives, and extensive doctrinal research on diversion was conducted. This research demonstrates that sound and informed laws and policies are crucial in improving the legal framework governing diversion, which can positively impact the well-being of children and facilitate their reintegration process. The results of this study are pivotal to stakeholders in both jurisdictions in ensuring children are afforded better legal protection, which aligns with national policies and the international legal framework.
THE COMPLEX INTERPLAY BETWEEN CHINA’S ETHNIC CONFLICTS, NATIONAL SECURITY AND GRAND STRATEGY
The relationship between internal conflicts and national strategic decision-making remains complex and often unclear. This article examines the case of Xinjiang to explore the intricate connections between ethnic conflicts, national security, and China’s Grand Strategy—factors that have significantly shaped the global order. Through an extensive literature review, the study highlights ethnic conflicts particularly in Xinjiang, serve as a primary driver for China’s Grand Strategy, emphasizing national security and strategic interests. Moreover, the findings suggest that military and economic imperatives play a crucial role in designing this strategy, particularly through the implementation of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), which intends to promote regional development and stability in the state. The study demonstrates that ethnic conflicts intensify the state’s focus on national security, influencing key policy-making decisions. Ultimately, it argues that China’s Grand Strategy is designed to ensure both national survival and sustained prosperity.
COUNTERFACTUAL DEPENDENCE, BOUNDARY AND RESOURCE DEPENDENCE
This study employs counterfactual dependence to explore boundary interactions in resource dependency research. Using set-theoretic operations—union, intersection, and complement—we examine how boundaries evolve when interdependence precedes and shapes non-equity relationships. We propose that when interdependence changes non-equity relations, counterfactual dependence adjusts boundary interactions at union (dichotomy) and intersection (clopen) operations. Additionally, counterfactual dependence facilitates consensus through transitive causation while maintaining dissensus, influencing boundary interactions at union. In cases of persistent dissensus caused by intransitive causation, counterfactual dependence elucidates the complement at union. This research highlights the importance of causal (counterfactual) resource dependence and set theory in advancing the understanding of boundary interactions in international business research.
MENTAL HEALTH SCREENING IN CHILD JUSTICE SYSTEMS: A COMPARISON BETWEEN MALAYSIA AND SELECTED JURISDICTIONS
Mental health is an important aspect at every stage of life, from childhood to adolescence and to old age. It is crucial to people’s overall well-being. In various studies that have been conducted, it has been found that a significant number of child offenders experienced some form of mental health problem or issue. This awareness has led to many countries adopting mental health screening as a part of the admission procedure into juvenile institutions. It has been argued that such a practice can benefit child offenders as it not only allows for the early detection of any underlying mental health issues but also assists the relevant authorities in personalising rehabilitation programmes that are unique for each child offender. Little is known about the regulatory approach taken by Malaysia and whether or not the existing practice, if any, is in line with other experienced jurisdictions at the international level. Hence, this article examines the laws and policies regarding mental health screening for child offenders admitted into juvenile institutions in Malaysia with a comparison made with other selected jurisdictions namely the United States of America, New Zealand, and the Netherlands. This study found that significant differences exist between Malaysia and selected jurisdictions such as the timing of mental health screening or the mental health screening tools utilised, and therefore, proposes some measures that can be learned and adopted by Malaysia to improve its child justice system and ensure the well-being of child offenders admitted into juvenile institutions.
Hak Cipta (c) 2024 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
THE PERENNIAL PROBLEMS OF DEMOCRATICPROMOTION IN SOUTHEAST ASIA
This article examines the challenges of promoting human rights in Southeast Asia. It focuses on the limited effectiveness of the regional human rights regime, which is influenced by ASEAN leaders’ strong emphasis on state sovereignty and the uneven adoption of democratic governance among member states. The study aims is to identify the factors that hinder the promotion of human rights within ASEAN and to analyze the relationship between the levels of democracy and prioritization of human rights in the region. Using a qualitative research approach, the study analyzes the development of human rights cooperation in ASEAN through the lens of Regime Theory in International Relations. The findings indicate that the promotion of human rights in Southeast Asia is constrained by fragile political commitment among ASEAN leaders and by significant variations in democratic governance across member states. These differences shape national priorities and influence the extent to which human rights norms are internalized within the regional framework. The study concludes that the effectiveness of human rights promotion in ASEAN is closely linked to the level of democratic development among member states. The findings highlight important implications for regional policy-making and underscore the need to address the tension between sovereignty norms and human rights commitments in order to strengthen the institutionalization of the regional human rights regime.
THE ABU SAYYAF GROUP AND KIDNAPPING FOR RANSOM IN SABAH, MALAYSIA, 2000–2023
Since the formation of the Federation of Malaysia in 1963, the country has faced various traditional security threats. These include the Philippines’ territorial claim over Sabah since 1968 and the Indonesia-Malaysia Confrontation from 1963 to 1966. However, with the evolving nature of global security, the discourse has expanded to include the non-traditional security threats (NTS). One of Malaysia’s key national security concerns is the prevalence of cross-border crimes, particularly along the maritime borders of Sabah’s east coast. Since 2000, the Malaysian government has implemented security policies to combat kidnapping for ransom (KFR). However, the on-going conflict in the southern Philippines has further complicated the security landscape in the region. This study investigates the role of the Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG) in KFR activities from 2020 to 2023. It argues that two primary factors have contributed to the persistence of the KFR: (i) on-going violence in the southern Philippines and (ii) the lucrative nature of the crime. This study employs a qualitative methodology, utilizing data from interviews with key informants, fieldwork observations, official documents from local authorities, and secondary sources. The findings highlight the growing prominence of NTS as a critical national security concern for Malaysia. Specifically, the study reveals that KFR has gained precedence over traditional security concerns, making it a top priority in Malaysia’s national security agenda.